Quantum Computing
Research Papers
Academic and industry research
SoK: Blockchain Consensus in the Quantum Age
G. Gutoski, S. Stebila
This 'System of Knowledge' (SoK) paper critically analyzes the intersection of consensus algorithms and quantum computing. The authors evaluate how quantum threats extend beyond signature forgery to consensus disruption, particularly in Proof-of-Work (PoW) and Proof-of-Stake (PoS) models. The paper investigates whether quantum speedups in Grover's algorithm undermine PoW mining difficulty adjustments. By formalizing a taxonomy of quantum threats, the authors provide a rigorous benchmark for assessing current consensus safety. They argue that consensus robustness in the quantum age requires not only new signature schemes but also rethinkings of the incentive structures that govern block production. The paper provides a definitive categorization of which blockchain components are vulnerable to quantum computing and which remain computationally secure under Grover's or Shor's algorithms.
A Blockchain Consensus Protocol Based on Quantum Attack Resistance
H. Wang, J. Chen, K. Wang
This research introduces a novel consensus protocol specifically designed for resistance against quantum-enabled adversaries. The authors propose a hybrid mechanism that integrates quantum-resistant signature schemes directly into the validator selection process. By utilizing a zero-knowledge proof framework alongside post-quantum cryptographic signatures, the protocol ensures both transaction privacy and ledger integrity in a hypothetical post-quantum environment. The methodology involves simulations of network performance under varying quantum adversarial conditions, comparing the proposed protocol against standard PoW and PoS implementations. The key contribution is the demonstration that quantum resistance can be achieved without catastrophic losses in decentralization or performance if the consensus layer is re-engineered to support smaller, hardware-accelerated signature verification.
Quantum and Post-Quantum Blockchain: A Systematic Survey
Ruwanga Konara, Awansika Nimuthumana, Asanka Sayakkara, Anuradha Mahasinghe, Kasun De Zoysa
This comprehensive survey provides an exhaustive literature review of the intersection between quantum mechanics and distributed ledger technology as of 2026. The authors categorize current quantum-resilient approaches into pre-quantum legacy systems and post-quantum cryptographic (PQC) implementations. The survey evaluates the efficiency of various signature schemes, such as XMSS and SPHINCS+, in the context of on-chain verification performance and storage overhead. It further analyzes the trade-offs between security levels and bandwidth requirements for block propagation in a quantum-secure environment. The paper concludes with a roadmap for transitioning current networks to quantum-safe stateful and stateless signature schemes, emphasizing the need for standardized PQC algorithms that minimize impact on throughput and latency.